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Historical Background : Predynastic Period c.5000–3100 BC, Archaic Period c.3100–2686 BC (Dynasty 1-2), Old Kingdom c.2686–c.2181 BC (Dynasty 3-6), First Intermediate Period c.2181–1991 BC (Dynasty 7-11), Middle Kingdom 1991–1786 BC (Dynasty 12), Second Intermediate Period 1786–1567 BC (Dynasty 13-17), New Kingdom 1567–1085 BC (Dynasty 18-20), Third Intermediate Period 1089–525 BC (Dynasty 21-26), Late Period 525–332 BC (Dynasty 27-31), Ptolemaic Egypt 305–30 BC, Roman Egypt 30 BC–c. AD 600 . . . . . read more   Geography of Ancient Egypt : The nature of the land and the climate profoundly influenced the civilization of ancient Egypt. Today a map shows that most of the country is desert; however, the Delta (the inverted triangle of cultivation at the mouth of Egypt through which the Nile fans out to join the Mediterranean), the Nile Valley, and the farflung oases in the Western Desert are fertile. In the Paleolithic period (before c.5000 BC) the Delta and Nile Valley were virtually uninhabitable. The annual flood (inundation) of the river Nile would have placed all areas of the Nile Valley under water for three months of each year, and at other times it was covered with thick vegetation that provided habitation for . . . . . read more   Society and Government : There were few changes in the social organization and system of government over a period of 3,000 years. This orderly arrangement was only punctuated by a possible revolution of some uncertain kind at the end of the Old Kingdom, followed by temporary collapse and disintegration, and by intermittent times of civil war (during the First, Second, and Third Intermediate Periods), when local princelings challenged central authority and established their own power bases. The system was supported and preserved, however, by patterns of marriage and inheritance: People tended to marry within their own social groups, and offices and trades were . . . . . read more   Religion of The Living : Religion was an integral part of the lives of the ancient Egyptians and permeated most aspects of everyday existence in addition to laying the foundation for their funerary beliefs and customs. Religion was practiced at the state level with the king acting as the unique link between the gods and men, and the temples played an important role in this respect too. There is also ample evidence of personal piety and worship by ordinary people who prayed to special . . . . . read more   Funerary Beliefs : Because tombs and temples were built of stone, evidence relating to burials and state religious customs has survived better than evidence relating to domestic buildings, which were constructed primarily of mud brick. This tends to present an inaccurate and partly misleading view of Egyptian society, perhaps placing undue emphasis on its preoccupation with death and preparation for the afterlife. Nevertheless, funerary beliefs and customs were obviously extremely important and influenced many of the concepts and . . . . . read more   Architecture and Building : In predynastic times the Egyptians had huts and shrines built of reeds and plant materials. They buried their dead in shallow sand graves. From c.3400 BC, they began to use sun-dried brick to construct great tombs for the ruling classes, and palaces and shrines were also now enclosed by brick walls. Gradually stone was introduced as a building material, and tomb walls and entrances were lined with dressed blocks of stone. In Dynasty 3 the vizier Imhotep designed a unique burial monument for Djoser—the world’s first pyramid and earliest . . . . . read more   Written evidence : Modern understanding of Egyptian civilization is greatly enhanced because it is now possible to read its extensive religious and secular literature. This became feasible because of the efforts of Jean-François Champollion and other scholars in deciphering hieroglyphic and other Egyptian scripts. The ability to read and translate the language enables accurate interpretation of the ancient evidence. Archaeology can only provide a narrow view of a civilization. Although excavated material provides indications about the structure and . . . . . read more   Army and Navy : Egypt was the least warlike country in the ancient world. The geography and natural resources of the country provided protection and food; therefore, it was not necessary for the Egyptians to fight would-be conquerors or promote wars to assist the economy. Until the New Kingdom there was no professional army, only a part-time, nonprofessional national army partly raised through conscription. But the Hyksos domination during the Second Intermediate Period . . . . . read more   Foreign trade and transport : The Egyptians regarded their own country as the center of the world, and although they entered into commercial and trading activities with other lands to obtain commodities that were scarce or unavailable in Egypt, they apparently had no great desire to explore or travel abroad in the spirit of adventure. All their hopes and aspirations were firmly fixed within Egypt. Their three main areas of commercial and trading activity were centered on the port of Byblos on the Syrian coast through . . . . . read more   Economy and Industry : The Egyptian economy was largely dependent on the fertility of the Nile. In times of peace and prosperity, when the kingdom was united and the irrigation system was effectively maintained, the economy was stable. Political strength ensured that a centralized bureaucracy was able to organize the country and to provide stockpiles of food that would offset the effects of poor inundations. Egypt was fortunately able to produce its own essentials—grain, fish, vegetables . . . . . read more   Everyday Life : Although evidence from ancient Egypt comes mainly from the tombs and funerary goods, the Egyptian ambition to re-create the conditions of their daily existence in the afterlife has resulted in the preservation both of tomb scenes, showing many facets of their lives, and of objects such as furniture, clothing, cosmetics, and jewelry. . . . . read more   Chronologically : Predynastic Period (c.5000-3100 BC) Unification of Egypt (c.3100 BC) Archaic Period Dynasty 1 (c.3100-2890 BC) Dynasty 2 (c.2890-2686) Old Kingdom Dynasty 3 (c.2686-2613 BC Dynasty 4 (c.2613-2494) Dynasty 5 (c.2494-2345) Dynasty 6 (c.2345-2181) First Intermediate Period Dynasty 7 (c.2181-2173 BC) Dynasty 8 (c.2173 2160) Dynasty 9 (c.2160-2130) Dynasty 10 (c.2130-2040) . . . . . read more   List of Museums With Egyptian Collections United States Baltimore (MD): Walters Art Gallery Berkeley (CA): Robert H. Lowie Museum of Anthropology Boston (MA): Museum of Fine Arts Cambridge (MA): Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University; Semitic Museum, Harvard University Chicago (IL): Field Museum of Natural History; Oriental Institute Museum Cincinnati (OH): Art Museum Cleveland (OH): Museum of Art Denver (CO): Art Museum Detroit (MI): Detroit Institute of Arts Kansas City (MO): William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art Los Angeles (CA): County Museum of Art Minneapolis (MN): Institute of Arts Museum . . . . . read more