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Although evidence from ancient Egypt comes mainly
from the tombs and funerary goods, the Egyptian ambition to
re-create the conditions of their daily existence in the afterlife
has resulted in the preservation both of tomb scenes, showing many
facets of their lives, and of objects such as furniture, clothing,
cosmetics, and jewelry.
Habitation and Population
With regard to the population of ancient Egypt,
the development of centers of habitation was largely directed by the
geographical features of the country. The predynastic towns and
villages remained the basis for this development; communities were
strung out along the river, hedged in on one side by the desert and
by the river on the other. Thus their direct contacts were with
their neighbors who lived immediately to the north or south. Since
the Nile was their only direct means of transport and communication,
it was always difficult for people in the north to have contact with
the far south. Gradually towns and villages came to form larger
districts or provinces, each with its own deity, capital city, and
traditions. These provinces, or nomes, were used as government
districts. Some of these in the Delta were quite large, whereas
others in the south were much smaller; there were about twenty nomes
in both Upper and Lower Egypt. Changes occurred over the centuries:
At different times nomes appeared in some lists as independent units
and in others as parts of other provinces, thus reflecting political
or governmental changes. Although their boundaries, areas, and
status might change, however, the nomes remained the basic divisions
of Egypt. There are no definite estimates of population figures
during the historic period. Numbers supplied by the Egyptians in
military campaigns, for example, are unreliable, and a “hundred
thousand persons” probably simply meant “a very large number” rather
than representing a specific figure. Nevertheless, it is known that
the country was very fertile, and it probably supported a dense
population within the narrow confines of the cultivation. Even with
a high infant mortality and low average life expectancy, the
Egyptians still found it necessary to limit the size of their
families by using contraception. It can perhaps be estimated that,
at its peak, the population reached between 5 and 7 million. The
racial mixture of the population is another uncertainty. The theory
of a Dynastic Race is now discredited. It is certain, however, that
many groups entered Egypt at different times; there were prisoners
of war taken captive in Egypt’s Asiatic campaigns, and craftsmen,
diplomats, technicians, and traders who came from neighboring lands.
There were foreign rulers such as the Hyksos who ruled the country
in Dynasties 15 and 16, and the New Kingdom saw the development of a
cosmopolitan society with foreign queens and their entourages at
court, traders bringing a variety of goods to Egypt, and immigrant
craftsmen and servants working at building sites and in Egyptian
households. When the Egyptians were ruled by foreigners during the
later dynasties, the Ethiopians, Assyrians, and Persians all had
some influence, although it is generally accepted that their
long-lasting impact was minimal. Under the Greeks and Romans major
changes were introduced, and the arrival of a substantial minority
of Greek settlers undoubtedly had an effect upon the overall
population. Despite these influxes, Egyptian civilization remained
remarkably stable and homogeneous. Foreign influence was minimal in
the formative years of the society, allowing the distinctive
Egyptian traditions to become firmly established. The culture was so
all-embracing and pervasive that, when it finally encountered
foreign ideas and customs, these were either readily absorbed and
Egyptianized or had little or no impact on the mainstream culture.
Within Egyptian society, however, each community retained its
physical separateness, although the inhabitants were generally
crowded together in the Nile Valley. The population never truly
combined to become one nation, and usually when the central
government collapsed the country broke down again into its various
geographical divisions.
The extent of the role of the foreigners within
special communities, such as the pyramid workmen’s town of Kahun, is
particularly interesting. It is evident that there was a presence,
perhaps significant in size, of foreign residents in the town. Legal
papyri and temple lists show that “Asiatics” were employed at
building works, in the temples, and in domestic service. It is also
possible that a group of Minoan workmen may have been employed on
the construction of the Lahun pyramid or engaged in producing goods
for the royal funerary treasure. At this time Crete was experiencing
stability and prosperity and quantities of Minoan pottery were being
exported to Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt. Other workers may have come to
Kahun from Cyprus and were perhaps partly responsible for the
metalworking development seen in the tools and other items
discovered at the town.
Thus, immigrants may have come to Kahun for a
variety of reasons. Some were perhaps traders who decided to stay
and settle; others were itinerant artisans whose skills were
welcomed by their royal patrons; and there were also those who had
probably been brought to Egypt as prisoners of war. The “foreigners”
appear to have been readily accepted by the indigenous population;
although they may have preserved some of their own religious and
other customs, the newcomers clearly adapted themselves to their new
home, and Kahun essentially remained an Egyptian town. There is
insufficient evidence from other sites to draw many general
conclusions about the combination of native and immigrant features
within Egyptian society; however, Bietak’s at Tell el-Dab‘a has
aroused great interest (see Chapter 1). Foreigners seem to have been
readily accepted, however, and in some cases were able to rise to
important and responsible positions within the hierarchy. The
Egyptians were generally tolerant of other people’s customs and
traditions. Since they posed no threat to their own lives, they
allowed others to pursue their own beliefs.
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Habitation and Population
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