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Industry : Mummification
Mummification
True mummification an intentional method of preserving the corpse involving several sophisticated techniques and the use of chemical and other agents was developed by the ancient Egyptians after a considerable period of experimentation. Its main purpose was to dehydrate the bodily tissues and thus prevent rapid decomposition, with the aim of preserving the appearance of the individual so that the soul could recognize the body and return to it at will. Mummification continued to be practiced in Egypt until the Christian era, although it was only available to the wealthier classes. Poor people were interred in shallow graves on the desert’s edge where the heat and dryness of the sand preserved their bodies naturally. This original method of burial, widespread before c.3400 BC, demonstrated that the body could be preserved indefinitely and was the Egyptians’ inspiration to seek new and more sophisticated methods of mummifying their dead. . TECHNIQUES Although there are no extant Egyptian literary accounts of how the embalming procedure was carried out, and no visual records occur (although two Theban tombs have wall scenes that show some stages in preparing and bandaging a mummy), detailed descriptions have survived in the writings of Greek historians Herodotus (fifth century BC) and Diodorus Siculus (first century BC). Herodotus describes three main methods, available according to cost. The most expensive and elaborate method (also shown by modern experiments to be the most effective) involved removal of the brain, as well as of the viscera and abdominal contents through an abdominal incision in the flank. The viscera were then cleansed with palm wine and spices and the body cavity was filled with myrrh, cassia, and other aromatic substances. After sewing up the incision, the body was dehydrated by means of natron, washed, and then wrapped in layers of bandages. The second method involved the injection of “cedar oil” into the body via the rectum and subsequent treatment with natron. The third method required an unspecified liquid to be injected via the rectum prior to treatment with natron. From the evidence of the literature and, more importantly, the many mummies that have survived, it is clear that Egyptian mummification involved two main stages: the evisceration of the body (although this was not universally applied) and the dehydration of the tissues, using natron. Additionally, the body was anointed with oils and unguents, sometimes coated with resin, and treated with plants and plant products. Only two major refinements were added to the procedure over the course of 3,000 years: From at least as early as the Middle Kingdom the brain was removed, and this became a widespread practice in the New Kingdom; and during Dynasty 21 the body was given a plumper and more lifelike appearance by packing the face, neck, and other areas with materials such as sand, sawdust, earth, butter, and linen, which were inserted through incisions in the skin. Sufficient evidence exists to allow us to reconstruct the main stages in the mummification procedure. First, the family of the deceased took the body to the embalmer’s workshop. The procedure lasted seventy days, although only forty days were probably required for preparation of the mummy. The remaining time would have been occupied with religious rituals. The body was stripped and placed on a board or platform. The brain was extracted, usually via a passage chiseled through the left nostril and ethmoid bone into the cranial cavity. Using a metal hook, the brain tissue was then reduced to fragments and extracted using a spatula. Brain removal was usually incomplete, however, and some tissue was left behind. The extracted brain fragments were discarded, and the brain cavity was either left empty or eventually filled with resin or resin-soaked linen. In some mummies the brain was removed through the base of the skull or through a trepanned orbit. The eyes were not taken out; they were allowed to collapse into the orbits, and linen pads were inserted over the eyeballs or, in Dynasties 21 and 22, artificial eyes were put in place. The body was eviscerated through an incision usually in the left flank. The embalmer inserted his hand through the flank incision and inside the abdominal cavity; he cut the organs free with a special knife and removed them from the body. Then, he entered the chest cavity by making an incision in the diaphragm and subsequently removed the thoracic organs. The heart was left in situ because it was regarded as the seat of the individual emotions and intellect. Diodorus states that the kidneys also remained in place, although no religious explanation can be offered for this. Often, evisceration was imperfect and part or all of the heart was removed with the other organs. Some mummies were not eviscerated at all, and in others the viscera were removed through the rectum. Next, the body cavities were washed out with palm wine and spices, and then a temporary packing was inserted to assist dehydration and prevent the body wall from collapsing. This temporary stuffing probably included dry natron, packets of a natron and resin mixture, and linen impregnated with resin. The extracted viscera were then dehydrated, using natron; sometimes, they were placed in four canopic jars that were left in the tomb, but during Dynasties 21 and 22 they were wrapped in four parcels and replaced in the abdominal and chest cavities. By Dynasty 26 canopic jars were briefly reintroduced, but in later times the viscera were wrapped in one large parcel and placed on the legs of the mummy. The body itself was now dehydrated. It is generally accepted that natron was the main dehydrating agent, although salt or lime may have been used in some cases. Natron (a mixture of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate with natural impurities that include high proportions of salt and sodium sulphate) occurs in natural deposits in Egypt. It was used in a solid, dry state for mummification, and the body was packed with dry natron for up to forty days. This destroyed the fat and grease and dehydrated the tissues. The body was then removed from the natron bed and washed with water to remove traces of natron and other debris. Still relatively pliable, the body was now straightened out so that it would fit into a coffin, and during Dynasty 21 the subcutaneous packing was inserted at this stage through incisions in the skin to provide a plumper form. Next, the body was anointed with cedar oil and ointments and rubbed with myrrh, cinnamon, and other fragrant substances. The flank incision was sewn up or closed by drawing the edges together and covering them with a metal or beeswax plate. The cranial cavity was packed with linen impregnated with resin, and resin or wax was used to plug the nostrils. Resinous paste was applied to the body, and the limbs and body were wrapped in linen cloths and bandages. Finally, the arms were arranged either across the chest or extended alongside the body. A special ceremony marked the conclusion of the procedure when a liquid or semiliquid resinous substance was poured over the mummy, the viscera if they were stored in a separate container, and the coffin. The family then removed the mummy and organized the burial ceremonies. . THE EMBALMERS The persons who performed the mummification procedures were a distinct group within the society. The Greek writer Diodorus Siculus stated that there were three main classes of people who prepared the body for the funeral: the scribe, the cutter, and the embalmer or undertaker. It was the duty of the scribe to supervise the incision made in the flank of the mummy to allow the evisceration of the body. The cutter (in Greek, paraschist) then carried out the incision. Because of this role (which gave him direct contact with the corpse and could therefore result in his contamination by the evil spirits associated with death), the cutter was regarded as unclean and untouchable. He could never relinquish or rise above this status. The embalmer, however, (known in Egyptian as the wt) belonged to the special guild or organization of undertakers and held an important and respected position within the society. The embalmer was responsible for wrapping the body in bandages; wearing a jackalheaded mask, he also impersonated Anubis, the god of embalming, during the mummification ceremonies. The embalmers were a class of priests who perhaps also had professional associations with doctors. Evidence that supports this includes the biblical account of Joseph directing the physicians to embalm his father’s body and the claim made by the Classical author Pliny that during the mummification process, the embalmers were instructed by the government to examine the corpse for evidence of the disease that had brought about the death. Also, in some cases the doctors may have consulted the embalmers prior to a patient’s death. In the Ptolemaic Period, the Egyptian word for “doctor” (swnw) was also sometimes used to mean “embalmer.” The office of embalmer was apparently hereditary. In addition to their own duties, it seems that they also employed a workforce of coffinmakers, a separate and distinct trade that combined the skills of carpenter and painter. These men also produced the figurines and other wooden items for the tomb. It is possible that the embalmers also owned tombs in the town cemeteries that they sold to clients. There is no specific information about the number of persons employed to prepare the mummies and participate in the funerals, but it must have been considerable. In addition to those already mentioned, other categories including lector-priests, sem-priests and “treasurers of the god” are listed in a text known as the “Ritual of Embalming” that is preserved on two papyri of the Roman Period, now held in the Berlin Museum and the Cairo Museum. The location for the mummification procedure, with its associated religious rituals of lustration, fumigation with incense, and recitation of prayers, was a workshop known as a wbt (“place of purification”) or alternatively as the “place of purification of the Good House.” No information has survived concerning the number or location of all these workshops. It is known, however, that in some cases a small, individual embalming place was built near the tomb, but always outside the actual tomb enclosure since the mummification process was considered to be “impure” and could not be allowed to contaminate the ritual purity of the tomb itself. Archaeologists have discovered a few of these places, containing the embalming refuse that was gathered up after mummification and buried nearby. Other workshops were situated near temples or burial grounds and accommodated many bodies. During the clearing of Queen Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el-Bahri, archaeologists found traces of such a workshop, together with the remains of natron and chopped straw that had been used to preserve and pack the bodies of priests who were prepared there for burial. The archaeologists also found the inscribed coffin of a priest in this workshop; it had presumably never been collected by the owner’s family. The embalmers highly skilled, trained professionals therefore had strong religious and perhaps medical associations, but they nevertheless appear to have conducted their work on an independent, commercial basis. Presumably, the most competent of these priests were entrusted with the arrangements for the preparation of the royal funerals, but there is no information on this point. It is evident that in all mummification procedures, the embalmers supervised all the stages. However, the unpleasant, potentially dangerous, and “impure” activities associated with making the incision and removing the viscera were carried out by a group of social outcasts who may have included convicted criminals. .
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Industry : Mummification
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