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Tomb Goods
To provide the deceased with the requirements for
the afterlife clothing, food, jewelry, cosmetics, tools, weapons,
domestic utensils, and many other items the body, even in the
earliest graves, was surrounded by a selection of such funerary
equipment. Later, when pyramids were built for royal burials and
stone or mud brick tombs accommodated the wealthy nobility,
preparations became more elaborate.
Mummification was introduced for the upper classes in order to preserve the body in a form that would be recognizable to its owner’s spirit. The interior walls of the nobles’ tombs were decorated with registers of carved and painted scenes of everyday existence especially the production of food which the Egyptians believed could be activated by magic for the owner’s benefit and enjoyment after death. Since the two main cults associated with death and resurrection at this time were those of Re (the sun god) and Osiris (the god of the underworld), their mythology and associations had a profound effect on contemporary funerary beliefs and burial customs. With the political downfall of the Old Kingdom and the rise of the First Intermediate Period and then the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians sought a new set of beliefs, one not centered around the absolute power of the king or the supremacy of his patron god Re (closely linked with the pyramids of the Old Kingdom). Osiris (believed to have been a human king who was murdered and subsequently resurrected at the behest of a divine tribunal as god and judge of the underworld) now received widespread worship because he offered his followers their own chance of personal immortality. This democratization of religious and funerary beliefs in the Middle Kingdom led to an immediate desire for men and women to supply and equip their tombs with a lavish range of goods. All those who could afford to prepare in this way for the afterlife now purchased a variety of tomb goods, and no other period perhaps preserves such a range of funerary items. These were stored in chambers in the tombs. In the New Kingdom the kings abandoned pyramids for their own burials and chose instead to prepare tombs in the desolate area known today as the Valley of the Kings. The only royal burial of the New Kingdom to have survived here virtually intact until its discovery in 1922 was that of Tutankhamun, and his funerary equipment has provided much evidence about the preparation of a royal burial of this period. Nonroyal tombs of the New Kingdom continued earlier traditions with their painted wall reliefs and tomb goods. In those burials that have survived destruction or looting by robbers there is evidence of increased luxury and a more cosmopolitan awareness both legacies of Egypt’s new status as a great empire builder and center of international diplomacy and wealth. Later Egypt’s gradual decline is again reflected in the burials, although magnificent treasure has been discovered in the royal tombs of Dynasty 21 at Tanis. In the final years when Greeks and Romans established their rulership over Egypt and many made their home there, they frequently adopted at least some of the Egyptian funerary beliefs and customs. Thus we find the Classical art of portraiture introduced and used to produce painted likenesses of individuals; probably executed in the owner’s lifetime, the portrait was hung in the house and then, at death, cut to size and placed over the face of the owner’s mummy. These panel portraits replaced the stylized, mass-produced coffins and masks of earlier times and brought Egyptian funerary customs and Hellenistic techniques together in a unique way. By now, however, there was a general cynicism about the advisability of providing tomb equipment, since it would almost inevitably be robbed; instead, the outer casings of the mummies became even more elaborate. Jewelry was now often symbolized, either molded in the cartonnage and gilded and inlaid with glass to represent semiprecious stones or simply painted onto the owner’s panel portrait. . Coffins Coffins were used to protect the dead from earliest times. Reed matting and pottery “box” coffins occur in predynastic and early dynastic burials, but from c.3400 BC when the mastaba tomb was introduced for royalty and nobility the burials incorporated a rectangular wooden coffin. This was probably regarded as a house for the deceased. During the Old Kingdom, stone coffins (sarcophagi) were introduced into the wealthiest burials, but it was in the Middle Kingdom that the typical “nest” of coffins became much more widely available. Most middle-class burials now included them as a major element of tomb equipment. It was customary to have two coffins. . THE RECTANGULAR COFFIN Rectangular coffins were usually made of wood and decorated with painted scenes on the exterior surfaces, although royalty and the great nobles sometimes supplied themselves with stone coffins whose decoration imitated the main features found on the wooden ones. The decoration consisted of horizontal lines of inscription (the so-called Coffin Texts, which were magical spells designed to assist the deceased in his passage to the next world; these were adapted for nonroyal use from the Pyramid Texts placed in the pyramids of the Old Kingdom to ensure the king’s eternity) and brightly painted geometric designs. These designs represented the facade of a palace or house, probably emphasizing the idea of the coffin as a dwelling place for the deceased. On the east or left side of the coffin there was also a painted pair of eyes, intended to allow the mummy inside the coffin to look out at the food offerings brought to the tomb. On some examples there were also paintings of food so that, in addition to the menu contained in the coffin inscriptions, the owner would have an additional source of magical food. . THE ANTHROPOID (BODY) COFFIN During the Middle Kingdom the anthropoid coffin was placed inside the rectangular coffin. Later in the New Kingdom a nest of two or even three anthropoid coffins replaced the rectangular and anthropoid set. The earliest body coffins were made of cartonnage (a kind of papier-mâché made from papyrus and gum) or wood, but by the Middle Kingdom wooden coffins became increasingly commonplace. Later, some body coffins were made of stone or pottery and even (usually for royalty) of gold or silver. It is thought that the body coffin originally developed from the cartonnage masks used in the Old Kingdom, which were placed over the head and face of the mummy both to protect it and to act as a substitute if the mummy was destroyed. A typical anthropoid coffin has the shape of a mummy; features painted on the outside bead collar, girdle, bandaging, and jewelry represent the real items found on the mummy inside. From the New Kingdom onward scenes of gods, the weighing of the deceased’s heart on his Day of Judgment and of his resurrection, as well as inscriptions from the funerary “books,” are also included. The deceased’s name and titles are inscribed in the texts to identify his ownership, but most coffins were mass-produced and the facial features are stylized rather than portraits of the owners. A wig or head cover is painted on the head; the eyes are often inlaid with obsidian and alabaster; and the wooden false beard and uraeus (snake) on the forehead indicate the status of the deceased as an “Osiris.” This meant that he had passed the moral examination at the Day of Judgment and was therefore regarded as an embodiment of Osiris, god of the dead. Although there were variations in style over hundreds of years, the basic aims of the anthropoid coffin to protect the body and provide a substitute for the deceased remained unchanged. . Canopic Jars Mummification involved the evisceration of most of the body’s organs from the abdominal and chest cavities. The viscera were then preserved by means of packing them in a dehydrating agent (natron), and they were either returned as packages to the body cavities or placed in containers (made of wood, pottery, or stone), known today as “canopic jars.” (The name is a misnomer early Egyptologists wrongly associated them with the Greek legend of Canopus, a helmsman of Menelaus, who was buried at Canopus in the Delta where he was worshiped in the form of a jar.) There were four jars in each set, and they were dedicated to a group of demigods called the “Four Sons of Horus”. These included Imset (humanheaded), who looked after the stomach and large intestine; Hapy (ape-headed), responsible for the small intestine; Duamutef (jackalheaded), in charge of the lungs; and Qebhsennuef (hawk-headed), who controlled the liver and gallbladder. In turn these deities were protected by the goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Selket. In the earlier examples of the Old and Middle Kingdoms the four jars were supplied with stoppers carved to represent human heads (probably to symbolize the tomb owner), but from Dynasty 18 onward the stoppers were in the form of four different heads human, ape, jackal, and hawk symbolizing the Four Sons of Horus. . Canopic Chest Some sets of canopic jars were placed in wooden canopic chests; the exterior sides and lid were brightly painted with lines of hieroglyphic inscription, representations of false doors, and a pair of painted eyes. They were in effect miniature coffins, and these features were present to allow the deceased to gain access to and be reunited with his viscera in the next life. For the same reason the chest was sometimes placed in a niche in the east wall of the burial chamber to be in the line of vision of the mummy. . Soul Houses In the Old Kingdom it was customary to place a circular, stone offering table or rectangular slab or platter in front of the stela in the tomb for the owner to receive his food offerings. By the Middle Kingdom, however, this became of secondary importance and was incorporated as a courtyard in the pottery model house (known as a “soul house”), which now became part of the tomb equipment. In effect these soul houses were funerary offering tables, but because of their design they also supply us with information about the period’s domestic architecture, which is often difficult to obtain from other sources. The design of these model houses varied, but most have a two-storied portico, a flat rooftop reached by a staircase from the ground level, and a cooking area in the courtyard at the front of the house. .
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Tomb Statues
It became the custom to place a statue or statuette of the owner in his tomb. In the early Old Kingdom only royalty and the great nobility were able to make this provision. Gradually the practice spread downward through society, and by the Middle Kingdom it became widespread throughout the middle classes. Most nonroyal tomb statuary is not life-size; it was believed that the ritual of the Opening of the Mouth, performed by a priest at the tomb on the day of burial, would magically restore the life force, original size, and functional abilities of all models and figures in the wall scenes in the tomb. Most examples, produced in large numbers, were only identified with a specific owner once his name had been inscribed on the statue. There is great variety in style and in materials (although stone and wood were most widely used) and also in the quality of the craftsmanship. Sometimes the statue of a tomb owner would be accompanied by other statues representing members of his family. . Servant Models In the Middle Kingdom democratization of funerary beliefs and customs resulted in a great increase in the tomb goods made available to all who could afford to purchase them. Tombs were now equipped with a variety of servant models carved in wood and painted with realistic details. They were often based on the subject content of the carved and painted wall scenes found in the Old Kingdom nonroyal tombs. These wall scenes continued in the Middle and New Kingdom tombs, but the servant models provided a new dimension; with the scenes it was believed that they could also be brought to life by means of magic to provide for the needs of the tomb owner in the next world. Whereas simple servant models had sometimes been placed in the Old Kingdom tombs, by the Middle Kingdom they were frequently arranged in groups, engaged in food production and preparation to provide the owner with an eternal food supply. We find models of granaries, breweries, slaughterhouses, and even complete versions of the owner’s house, estate, and herds; agricultural activities such as plowing the fields are frequently represented, and others include fishing in the river. In addition to their funerary importance they also supply us with fascinating details of the daily activities of the great landowners and their servants. A special category consists of the model figurines of soldiers found most frequently in tombs of the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom when civil strife and local warfare between powerful rulers were widespread. These models, fully armed with miniature weapons, were intended to protect the tomb owner against his enemies in the next life. . USHABTIS A special category of servant model is known today as a ushabti or shabti, and many examples can be seen in museum collections. During the First Intermediate Period there emerged the idea of the kingdom of Osiris a realm for the dead where everyone would be required to undertake menial and agricultural labor irrespective of their rank. To avoid this obligation the wealthy began to supply themselves with model agricultural workers (ushabtis) to undertake forced labor. Introduced in Dynasties 9 and 10, they continued in use throughout most of Egypt’s history; their size and quality of manufacture often provide an indication of the political and economic status of the country at any specific period. Each tomb set included hundreds of figurines (it is sometimes said that one was provided for each day of the year), and there were also “overseer” figures to keep the ushabti workers under control. The ushabtis are represented as mummiform figures, and they carry hoes, mattocks, and baskets painted or carved on the body; they are frequently inscribed with the owner’s name and a magical formula indicating their willingness and readiness to undertake tasks for the deceased. The overseers are shown with flared skirts, and they each carry a whip. The material, style, size, decoration, and inscriptions show minor variations throughout the dynasties, and examples made of wax, baked clay, wood, stone, and metal have been found, but faience introduced for ushabti manufacture in Dynasty 18 became the most popular material. In the later periods ushabtis were often mass-produced in clay molds, but there was a revival in quality in Dynasty 26 when some superb figurines were produced. The origin of the word ushabti probably came from the Egyptian verb wesheb, meaning “to reply” or “answer”; as “answerers,” the ushabtis responded to the daily call to forced labor on behalf of their owner. . Dolls and Concubine Figures It is sometimes difficult to determine if figurines placed in tombs were intended as toys to entertain a child in the next world or if they had a different function as symbols of fertility and of rebirth after death. Examples of “dolls” are particularly problematic; some may have been playthings, but the “paddle dolls” introduced in Dynasty 11 (flat, wooden, paddleshaped figures whose painted decoration greatly enlarged and emphasized their sexual organs) obviously had a different purpose. Later, there were also “concubine figures” made of wood, stone, or pottery and often decorated with inlaid eyes and elaborate, detachable wigs (also a sexual symbol in ancient Egypt). As well as the fertility/rebirth aspect of such figures, they were probably intended to cater by means of magic for the tomb owner’s entertainment in the same way that the servant models supplied his food. .
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Model Boats
By the Middle Kingdom an essential feature of tomb equipment was the wooden model boat. This was often produced with great attention to detail and included linen sails and oars and deck cabin and crew, all carved and painted appropriately. The most important reason for including a model boat in the tomb was to allow the deceased owner to make a pilgrimage to Abydos, the sacred city of Egypt where Osiris, god of the dead, was believed to be buried. Such a journey, it was thought, would enhance the dead person’s chances of resurrection and eternal life. Some people supplied their tombs with several model boats, and the wealthy nobility even had complete model fleets that included a variety of craft such as long-distance boats, funerary barks, and fishing vessels. These obviously had different purposes to allow the deceased to travel, to convey him from his home on the east bank of the Nile to the cemetery in the west, or to augment his food supply. As with the servant models the magical funerary rites were expected to give these boats the full size and operational ability of the originals. . Stela In nonroyal tombs of the Old Kingdom the owner was provided with an offering list and an autobiography inscribed on the interior walls. The autobiography summarized his life and characteristics; it included his official rank and titles so that in his afterlife he could justify his claim to continue in high office. The text laid great emphasis on his worthiness and virtues but omitted any reference to his failures or sins, thus presenting an insight into the standards of behavior required at that time. These are of additional use to the Egyptologist in providing information about family relationships and Old Kingdom ranks and titles. The offering list, which became the main feature of the nonroyal tomb of the Old Kingdom, was a formal inscription that asked for benefits on behalf of the deceased in the next world (especially food and drink) and also requested that he be well received there. It developed a specific formula asking for the offerings either through the agency of Anubis, the jackal-headed god of embalming, or through the king’s bounty. Called the Hetep-di-nesew formula (“a boon which the king gives”), it was later used on wooden coffins of the Middle Kingdom. The essentially magical formula was designed to provide access for the deceased to the next world and to supply all his material needs there. The offering list and the autobiography had reached their most complete forms in the tombs of Dynasty 6, but later in the Middle Kingdom they emerged in the form of a stela. This was a stone block, often round topped, carved with a scene of the deceased offering to the gods. The inscription included the autobiography, which featured the main events of the owner’s life, as well as prayers that praised the kings and gods. Some stelae were large, but most were small or medium sized, and many were set up by ordinary people in their tombs or at centers of pilgrimage such as Abydos as personal memorials. Many stelae survive today, partly because of the large numbers produced but also because stone a durable material was used for most of them. Some wooden examples have also survived. .
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Tomb Goods
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