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The Military:
Historical Background
Egypt was the least warlike country in the
ancient world. The geography and natural resources of the country
provided protection and food; therefore, it was not necessary for
the Egyptians to fight would-be conquerors or promote wars to assist
the economy. Until the New Kingdom there was no professional army,
only a part-time, nonprofessional national army partly raised
through conscription. But the Hyksos domination during the Second
Intermediate Period made the Egyptians aware of the need for an
aggressive policy toward their neighbors. Although there had always
been a national army and a warlike tradition and the soldiers were
well drilled and organized, the Egyptians were reluctant to fight
abroad because they feared that they might die and be buried outside
Egypt without the appropriate rites. Therefore, as early as the Old
Kingdom the army recruited foreign mercenaries, a practice that
increased in later years.
The kings were traditionally the chief warriors of the state from the time when King Menes (Narmer) conquered the north and established a united kingdom. Gods such as Seth, Sekhmet, and Montu were regarded as patrons of warfare who helped the king achieve his victories. The king personally led his troops on campaigns, and according to some accounts such as the description of the exploits of Ramesses II at the Battle of Kadesh the king was depicted as the sole conqueror who vanquished his enemies single-handedly. Temple scenes and inscriptions commemorate the pharaoh’s campaigns, battles, and victories and show him as a mighty hero. Kings acted on behalf of the gods in overcoming Egypt’s enemies with the main purpose of restoring cosmic order over chaos. There were many potential enemies including the Hyksos, Libyans, Nubians, Sea Peoples, Ethiopians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans who attempted to penetrate Egypt’s borders; there were also foes such as the Mitannians and Hittites whom they encountered in conflicts abroad. Civil wars also broke out between local princes or governors in the periods when centralized control collapsed. Nevertheless, by the middle of Dynasty 18, the kings had established Egypt as the major military power in the area with an empire reaching from the Euphrates River to southern Nubia. It was the first empire in the region, but there was no centralized system of officials and it was much smaller than the later Assyrian and Persian Empires. Nubia was effectively ruled as a colony of Egypt, but in Syria/Palestine a different system of administration was adopted. The local governors or princes were left in charge of their own conquered cities, but the Egyptians ensured that only those who followed their line were given control. To underline this policy the children or brothers of these vassal rulers were removed to Egypt where they became hostages, educated as Egyptians. By the reign of Tuthmosis IV there was a marked change in policy. Both the Egyptians and their chief enemy, the Mitannians, realized that neither could prevail and permanently expel the other from northern Syria. Therefore, they made peace, and this policy was continued by the next ruler, Amenhotep III, who was heir to the vast domains and great wealth of Egypt’s empire at its zenith. Warfare was now replaced by peace and diplomacy. Ties between Egypt and Mitanni were strengthened still further by the marriage of Amenhotep III to Ghilukhepa, the daughter of the Mittanian king Shuttarna. Later, Tadukhepa, another Mitannian princess, was also sent to Egypt to marry the same king. Correspondence between the two royal courts showed concern for each other’s welfare when Amenhotep III became sick in his old age, the Mitannian ruler Tushratta sent an image of the goddess Ishtar to aid his recovery. During the long reign of Amenhotep III and partly as the result of the subsequent actions of his son, Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten, however, Egypt’s power abroad declined. Increasingly, the vassal princes in Palestine began to loosen their ties with Egypt and to move toward the new power in the area, the Hittites. In Dynasty 19, Sethos I and Ramesses II had to reestablish Egypt’s influence in the area by launching a series of military campaigns. By the reign of Ramesses III, Egypt had adopted a defensive policy, fighting against a new threat posed by the coalition of Libyans and Sea Peoples. In general, nonetheless, the Egyptian army (and the navy as its supporting force) reached its zenith during this period, the New Kingdom, when an aggressive rather than a defensive policy was pursued abroad. The empire that they established was loosely organized and had a relatively benign approach. The Egyptians were never really a nation of conquerors, however, and other more warlike peoples eventually seized power: A series of conquerors Ethiopians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans succeeded in defeating their forces and occupying their country. The superior weapons and more advanced military strategies of the foreigners were key factors in these victories. Nevertheless, Egyptian weapons, models of soldiers placed in the tombs, battle scenes and inscriptions, model and full-scale boats, and excavated fortresses have provided a wealth of information about Egypt’s armed forces and military policy. .
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The Military: Historical Background
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