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The Professional Army
After the Hyksos domination of Egypt in Dynasties
15 and 16, the native kings who ruled the country in Dynasty 18 had
become very aware of the need for a professional, national army. For
the first time the rulers of the New Kingdom were determined to
create an outstanding military power that would be able to fight off
any future attempts by foreign groups to dominate Egypt. This army,
probably started by King Amosis I, was organized on a national basis
with professional soldiers as officers. This replaced the earlier
arrangements when governors had conscripted soldiers from the local
population whenever the king decided to fight or undertake
expeditions. One of the main ambitions during Dynasty 18 was to
establish and retain an empire, and this underpinned the need for
development in the army and navy. Sources for our knowledge of this
army include wall scenes in Dynasty 18 tombs; chariots found in the
tombs of Tuthmosis IV, Yuya (a leading soldier and father-in-law of
Amenhotep III), and Userhet (scribe under Amenhotep II); reliefs on
the chariot of Tuthmosis IV; paintings on the lid of a wooden chest
belonging to Tutankhamun; and reliefs on walls in the city of Tell
el-Amarna and in the temples of Abydos, Beit el-Wali, the Ramesseum,
Karnak, and Abu Simbel. There is also literary evidence, such as the
Edict of Horemheb, which provides details about the organization of
the army.
Organization and Recruitment The pharaoh was commander in chief and led the army in major campaigns; however, princes or minor officials were usually in charge of less important expeditions. The vizier (chief minister) was also minister of war, and he was advised by an army council. The army was broken down into divisions of about 5,000 men in the field; each was named after a principal god. Divisions consisted of infantry and chariotry and were under the command of either the king or one of the princes. Before battle the king was advised by the senior officials who made up the council of war. In the Middle Kingdom the infantry consisted of two main groups older foot soldiers and younger, less experienced men. In later times the pattern changed: The infantry included recruits, trained men, and specialized troops. During Dynasty 18 some recruits were drawn from Nubia, and prisoners of war began to be enlisted from the reign of Amenhotep III onward, a practice that was continued under the Ramesside rulers of Dynasty 19. In later periods there were many foreigners in the army, but in the New Kingdom it was customary to recruit soldiers by conscription so that, in the reign of Ramesses II, the proportion of the population who was forced to take up military service numbered one man in every ten. In addition to conscription there were men who chose the army as a profession, and during the Ramesside Period the upper classes included many military officials. Military service for them offered rapid wealth and promotion, and officers were selected from these professional soldiers. Also, since the king believed that he could rely on the army he created important palace officials from their number such as the tutor to the royal children. Other incentives to join and remain in the army included the opportunity to gain great wealth by acquiring booty taken during the campaigns and the law also ensured that land given by the king to his professional soldiers could only be inherited by their sons if they also joined the army. Conscription, recruitment of foreign soldiers, and inducements to join the army all helped the Egyptian rulers to build a professional army that could establish and control an empire. This was no mean feat since the Egyptians were essentially peace loving. CHAIN OF COMMAND From the titles held by the soldiers it is possible to deduce that the lowest commander was known as the “Greatest of Fifty.” Above him was the standard-bearer who was in charge of 200 men and then another commander of slightly higher rank who led 250 soldiers; his superior was the captain of the troop. The commander of the troop may have controlled a brigade, several regiments, or a fortress; he was responsible to the overseer of garrison troops who answered to the overseer of fortresses (there were two, one each for the Nubian frontier and the Mediterranean coast). Then there was the lieutenant commander who acted as a senior officer, general administrator, and military commander; his superior was the general (overseer of the army) who in turn reported to the king. THE CHARIOTRY As well as an infantry, there was also the chariotry, which had probably been introduced into Egypt under the Hyksos. This was divided into squadrons, each of which had twenty-five chariots and was commanded by a “Charioteer of the Residence.” Each chariot had two wheels and was drawn by two horses; it carried two men the driver and a fighting soldier who had bows and arrows, a shield, sword, and javelin. The “First Charioteer of his Majesty” probably drove the king’s chariot and wielded great power; his other duties included traveling abroad, probably to acquire stud horses. In addition to this method of increasing the breeding stock the Egyptians may have captured horses during their foreign campaigns. Another important position was held by the royal stable master who was in charge of the royal training stables. Other stable masters were responsible for feeding and exercising the horses. There was no cavalry, perhaps because the horses were not strong or large enough to carry a rider. SPECIAL FORCES There were also specialized troops. The “Braves of the King” were an elite fighting force who led attacks, and the ‘w‘yt were garrison troops, on service at home or abroad, who sometimes acted as household troops for the king. Then there were the “Retainers,” whose exact role remains obscure; they may have functioned originally as a royal bodyguard, but in the middle of Dynasty 18 they were in charge of issuing rations to troops, and by Ramesside times they acted as letter couriers. The Edict of Horemheb (end of Dynasty 18) implies that the army was divided into two corps (in Upper and Lower Egypt) when they were at home; each was led by a lieutenant commander who was responsible to the general. They garrisoned frontier forts, dealt with riots, escorted royal processions and public celebrations, and perhaps provided unskilled labor for public building works. .
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The Professional Army
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